As an emerging technological innovation, digital assets have provided some benefits and value for some residents and businesses in the United States, and have the potential for future benefits with emerging uses. Crypto-assets are digital assets that are implemented using cryptographic techniques. Crypto-assets can require considerable amounts of electricity usage, which can result in greenhouse gas emissions, as well as additional pollution, noise, and other local impacts to communities living near mining facilities.
Depending on the energy intensity of the technology and the sources of electricity used, the rapid growth of crypto-assets could potentially hinder broader efforts to achieve U. In March, in Executive Order on Ensuring the Responsible Development of Digital Assets , President Biden made clear that the responsible development of digital assets includes reducing negative climate impacts and environmental pollution.
OSTP assembled an interdisciplinary team of experts to assess and extend existing studies with new analysis, based on peer-reviewed studies and the best available data. Crypto-Assets Can Be Energy-Intensive, and the United States Has a Major Crypto-Asset Sector From to , annualized electricity usage from global crypto-assets grew rapidly, with estimates of electricity usage doubling to quadrupling.
As of August , published estimates of the total global electricity usage for crypto-assets are between and billion kilowatt-hours per year, a range that exceeds the total annual electricity usage of many individual countries, such as Argentina or Australia.
This is equivalent to 0. Nearly all crypto-asset electricity usage is driven by consensus mechanisms: the DLT used to mine and verify crypto-assets. The PoW mechanism is designed to require more computing power as more entities attempt to validate transactions for coin rewards, and this feature helps disincentivize malicious actors from attacking the network. The energy efficiency of mining equipment has been increasing, but electricity usage continues to rise.
Other less energy-intensive crypto-asset ledger technologies exist, with different attributes and uses. The United States is estimated to host about a third of global crypto-asset operations, which currently consume about 0. This range of electricity usage is similar to all home computers or residential lighting in the United States. Crypto-asset mining is also highly mobile.
Despite the potential for rapid growth, future electricity demand from crypto-asset operations is uncertain, demonstrating the need for better data to understand and monitor electricity usage from crypto-assets.
This range of emissions is similar to emissions from diesel fuel used in railroads in the United States. Besides purchased grid electricity, crypto-asset mining operations can also cause local noise and water impacts, electronic waste, air and other pollution from any direct usage of fossil-fired electricity, and additional air, water, and waste impacts associated with all grid electricity usage.
These local impacts can exacerbate environmental justice issues for neighboring communities, which are often already burdened with other pollutants, heat, traffic, or noise. The growth of energy-intensive crypto-asset technologies, when not directly using clean electricity, could hinder the ability of the United States to achieve its National Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement, and to avoid the most severe impacts of climate change.
Broader adoption of crypto-assets, and the potential introduction of new types of digital assets require action by the federal government to encourage and ensure responsible development. Proof-of-stake energy expenditure The energy expenditure of Ethereum is roughly equal to the cost of running a modest laptop for each node on the network.
Many articles estimate "per-transaction" energy expenditure to compare blockchains to other industries. The benefit of this is that it is easy to understand. However, transaction-based estimates can be misleading because the energy required to propose and validate a block is independent of the number of transactions within it. A per transaction unit of energy expenditure implies that fewer transactions would lead to smaller energy expenditure and vice-versa, which is not the case.
A per-transaction estimate is highly dependent upon how a blockchain's transaction throughput is defined, and tweaking this definition can be gamed to make the value seem larger or smaller. For example, on Ethereum, the transaction throughput is not only that of the base layer - it is also the sum of the transaction throughput of all of its " layer 2 " rollups, which are not generally included in calculations and would drastically reduce them.
This is one reason why tools that compare energy consumption per transaction across platforms are misleading. More relevant is the overall energy consumption and carbon footprint of the network as a whole.
From those values, we can examine what that network offers to its users and society at large and make a more holistic evaluation of whether that energy expenditure is justified or not. Per transaction measurements, on the other hand, imply the value of the network only comes from its role in transferring crypto between accounts and prohibits an honest cost-benefit analysis.
CCRI has measured the electricity consumption of different nodes with various hardware and client software configurations. This resulted in an estimation of 2. Digiconomist provides whole-network energy consumption and carbon footprints for Bitcoin and Ethereum. In comparison, the total energy expenditure for securing Ethereum is closer to 0.
Note that the estimates presented in the plot are from publicly available sources that have been linked to in the text below. They are illustrative and do not represent an official estimate, promise or forecast. To put Ethereum's energy consumption in context, we can compare annualized estimates for other industries.
As a digital payments platform we could perhaps compare to PayPal estimated to consume about 0. Estimates of energy consumption by Netflix range dramatically between about 0. Estimates of YouTube's energy expenditure have been broken down by channel and individual videos.
Those estimates imply that people consumed 45 times more energy watching Gangnam Style in than proof-of-stake Ethereum uses in a year. A green application layer While Ethereum's energy consumption is very low, there is also a substantial, growing, and highly active regenerative finance ReFi community building on Ethereum.
ReFi applications use DeFi components to build financial applications that have positive externalities benefiting the environment. ReFi is part of a wider "solarpunk" movement that is closely aligned with Ethereum and aims to couple technological advancement and environmental stewardship.
The decentralized, permissionless, composable nature of Ethereum makes it the ideal base layer for the ReFi and solarpunk communities. Through the development of these and others, e. DeSci , Ethereum is becoming an environmentally and socially-positive technology. Ethereum's carbon debt Ethereum's current energy expenditure is very low, but this has not always been the case. Ethereum switched on its proof-of-stake consensus mechanism in Q3 However, Ethereum used a proof-of-work mechanism from , which had a much greater environmental cost.
Since its inception, Ethereum aimed to implement a proof-of-stake consensus mechanism, but doing so without sacrificing security and decentralization took years of focused research and development. Therefore, a proof-of-work mechanism was used to get the network started. Proof-of-work consensus requires miners to use their computing hardware to solve a puzzle, expending energy in the process.
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A standard electric car consumes around 0. So, an electric car would have to travel 35 million kilometers 22 million miles to use as much electricity as all daily Bitcoin transactions do. Yes, you read that right. But it doesn't end with transactions. Simply finding Bitcoin and putting them into circulation also racks up quite an electricity bill. The Energy Requirements of Bitcoin Mining Mining is the process of finding and circulating new crypto coins.
You've probably heard of this if you're interested in crypto, or maybe you've seen it in news headlines. Mining requires unbelievable amounts of energy and is contributing to climate change. Let's take a look at the data here.
Currently, users mine around Bitcoin blocks daily, which comes to just over 50, annually. This mining process uses up 91 TWh of electricity each year. This may sound like a small amount, but one terawatt-hour contains one million megawatt-hours. So, in short, Bitcoin mining is using a lot more energy than the total annual transactions conducted. It's the most energy-intensive part of the cryptocurrency industry, without a doubt. Let's take a look at another of Statista 's studies to better understand the energy consumption of Bitcoin as a whole.
The chart above shows that Bitcoin is now using Mining takes up around half of this figure, with storage, transactions, and other elements making up for the rest. So, Bitcoin is clearly taking up a huge amount of energy, but how does it compare to Ethereum, the world's second most popular cryptocurrency? Its popularity and value have soared, but increased demand means increased energy requirements.
So, let's take a look at Ethereum transactions first. Statista 's data shows that, like Bitcoin, one Ethereum transaction uses more energy than , Visa transactions. This is still a shocking fact, but the energy difference between the two isn't as drastic as what we see with Bitcoin. Ethereum uses 1. But recall that Bitcoin requires over 12 times the energy for just one transaction. So, there is a drastic difference in energy usage here. But this doesn't address the core environmental problem with cryptocurrency: mining.
So, let's see how Ethereum compares to Bitcoin in this case. Of course, this is still a huge amount of energy. So, around six times more Ethereum has been mined than Bitcoin, all the while using significantly less electricity. When looking at the figures, the very obvious answer is Bitcoin by a long shot. Both its transactions and mining process use significantly more electricity than Ethereum. Statista's reports on the total amount of energy used by both cryptos confirm this.
Coins are locked up as collateral in the staking process i. Regardless of whether a network runs PoW or PoS, creating the next block for the blockchain will provide the creator with a reward, but in PoW the chance of obtaining this reward could only be increased by employing more energy-hungry devices. PoS may only incentivize acquiring a higher stake to increase the odds of creating a new block, but the computational power of the underlying device is not relevant to this process.
A participating device may still have to meet some requirements e. Blockchains are distributed ledgers in which data and processes are replicated over hundreds or thousands of different nodes in the network, which introduces significant data redundancy. From a blockchain perspective this is required to make decentralization work the more, the better , but from an environmental perspective this may always lead to undesirable outcomes. This can easily be illustrated by comparing the energy efficiency of PoS Ethereum to a centralized institution such as Mastercard as shown below.
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