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Closed-Loop Control To achieve automatic control, the interaction between the control unit and the controlled element must occur. In a closed-loop system, this interaction is called feedback. Feedback can be activated by electrical, thermal, light, chemical, or mechanical energy.
Both full and partial control can be achieved through a closed-loop system. See Figure 6. Many of the automated systems used in industry today are of the closed-loop type. A closed-loop system may have automatic correction control. Closed-Loop System Working In the system, the energy goes to the control unit and the controlled element.
Feedback from the controlled element is directed to a comparator, which compares the feedback signal to a reference signal or standard. A correction signal is developed by the comparator and sent to the control unit. This signal alters the system so that it conforms to the data from the reference source. Systems of this type maintain a specified operating level regardless of external variations or disturbances. Figure 6.
Closed-loop systems may be depicted by block diagrams. Automated control has gone through many changes in recent years with the addition of control devices that are not obvious to the casual observer. These include devices that change the amplitude, frequency, waveform, time, or phase of signals passing through the system. See Figure 7. When a positive-going voltage is applied to the input, a negative-going voltage will be produced at the output.
The input signal is applied to the op-amp inverting input through R1, while resistor R2 serves as the feedback element. The voltage gain of the feedback inverting amplifier can be less than, equal to, or greater than 1. Its value depends on the values of resistors R1 and R2.
Because a feedback component is used in this type of circuit, the amplifier is operating in a closed-loop condition. The closed-loop gain of the feedback inverting amplifier can be controlled by switching in different feedback resistors. Offset Error and Nulling Although extreme care is taken in fabricating an op-amp, a slight mismatch may still occur between the internal components. Offset error is a slight mismatch between internal components.
Offset error creates a problem when using an op-amp in a DC circuit. The mismatch prevents the amplifier from having a zero output for zero input. Figure 7. Even with proper bias, the feedback inverting amplifier has an input bias current IB through the input and feedback resistors with no signal applied. The additional current flow through these resistors produces a voltage drop, which appears as the DC input voltage.
The op-amp then amplifies this DC input voltage, compounding the offset error. To correct the offset error, the nulling technique is often used through a nulling resistance network. With this network, the nulling variable resistor is adjusted for zero output with zero input. Operational amplifier Op-Amp Applications Op-amps are used for a variety of amplification applications. For example, they are used in audio amplifiers and video amplifiers.
They are also ideal for a variety of industrial and commercial control systems. Current-to-Voltage Converters A current-to-voltage op-amp uses the current sensitivity of the op-amp to measure very small currents. This basic current-to-voltage converter is essentially an inverting amplifier without an input resistor. The input current is applied directly to the inverting input of the op-amp.
A thermistor varies the amount of current Iin entering the inverting input of the op-amp. See Figure 8. As the ambient temperature around a thermistor increases, the resistance of the thermistor decreases, current to the input of the op-amp increases, and the voltage at the output increases. As the temperature decreases, the resistance increases, current decreases, and voltage output decreases. Since the output of the circuit is now voltage, the op-amp voltage can be used to drive an output device.
Figure 8. As the ambient temperature around a thermistor changes, the resistance of the thermistor changes. Voltage-to-Current Converters In certain circuits, such as a circuit in an air compressor, a change in voltage becomes the reference for the change in the circuit. When this is the case, a voltage-to-current op-amp is used. See Figure 9. The output voltage of the bridge circuit is a function of the degree of imbalance present in the input bridge.
For the bridge circuit, an imbalance can be created by changing the pressure on the pressure sensor transducer. The potentiometer determines the pressure-set limits. Figure 9. A voltage-to-current op-amp can be used to control an air compressor. The unit can operate directly from the AC supply since it includes a step-down transformer and a single-phase rectifier.
When the pressure drops, the resistance of the pressure sensor decreases. Terminal 3 of the op-amp becomes more positive than terminal 2. Under this condition, the output current at pin 6 causes the triac to conduct. With the triac conducting, power is applied to the coil, which turns on the air compressor. When the pressure in the tank is brought up to the preset limit, the value of the pressure sensor increases, balancing the bridge, and the air compressor shuts off.
Thermostat Control An op-amp can be used as a differential amplifier. A differential op-amp is a type of op-amp used in differential thermostat controls for solar water heaters. See Figure Small signal changes can be detected easily in the circuit and are amplified for signaling or control purposes. Because the output of an op-amp has very little power, an interface device, such as a control relay, must be used to control higher power loads, such as a water pump in a hot water system.
Figure A differential op-amp can be used in a solar water heater thermostat control circuit. When the op-amp has signals of equal amplitude and polarity applied to each of its inputs simultaneously, the output will be zero. Op-Amps are popular for its versatility as they can be configured in many ways and can be used in different aspects.
An op-amp circuit consists of few variables like bandwidth, input, and output impedance, gain margin etc. Different class of op-amps has different specifications depending on those variables. You can learn more about Op-amps by following our Op-amp circuits section. An op-amp has two differential input pins and an output pin along with power pins.
Those two differential input pins are inverting pin or Negative and Non-inverting pin or Positive. An op-amp amplifies the difference in voltage between this two input pins and provides the amplified output across its Vout or output pin. Depending on the input type, op-amp can be classified as Inverting Amplifier or Non-inverting Amplifier.
In previous Non-inverting op-amp tutorial , we have seen how to use the amplifier in a non-inverting configuration. In this tutorial, we will learn how to use op-amp in inverting configuration. Inverting Operational Amplifier Configuration It is called Inverting Amplifier because the op-amp changes the phase angle of the output signal exactly degrees out of phase with respect to input signal.
Same as like before, we use two external resistors to create feedback circuit and make a closed loop circuit across the amplifier. In the Non-inverting configuration , we provided positive feedback across the amplifier, but for inverting configuration, we produce negative feedback across the op-amp circuit. The R2 Resistor is the signal input resistor, and the R1 resistor is the feedback resistor.
This feedback circuit forces the differential input voltage to almost zero. The voltage potential across inverting input is the same as the voltage potential of non-inverting input. So, across the non-inverting input, a Virtual Earth summing point is created, which is in the same potential as the ground or Earth. The op-amp will act as a differential amplifier. So, In case of inverting op-amp, there are no current flows into the input terminal, also the input Voltage is equal to the feedback voltage across two resistors as they both share one common virtual ground source.
Due to the virtual ground, the input resistance of the op-amp is equal to the input resistor of the op-amp which is R2. This R2 has a relationship with closed loop gain and the gain can be set by the ratio of the external resistors used as feedback. As there are no current flow in the input terminal and the differential input voltage is zero, We can calculate the closed loop gain of op amp. Learn more about Op-amp consturction and its working by following the link. Gain of Inverting Op-amp In the above image, two resistors R2 and R1 are shown, which are the voltage divider feedback resistors used along with inverting op-amp.
R1 is the Feedback resistor Rf and R2 is the input resistor Rin. Op-amp Gain calculator can be used to calculate the gain of an inverting op-amp. Practical Example of Inverting Amplifier In the above image, an op-amp configuration is shown, where two feedback resistors are providing necessary feedback in the op-amp.
The resistor R2 which is the input resistor and R1 is the feedback resistor.
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Operational Amplifiers - Inverting \u0026 Non Inverting Op-Amps
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